Review Article - Rheumatoid Arthritis & Il-6 Essay Example for Free

Review Article Rheumatoid Arthritis Il-6 Essay Introduction Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an inflammatory autoimmune condition principally causing synovial joint inflammation and cartilage erosion. The pathogenesis encompasses intricate cellular and humoural manifestations, and vascular reactions that result in the infiltration of the synovium by white blood cells, of which release inflammatory mediators, inclusive of Interleukin-6 (IL-6). IL-6 serum levels of RA patients as shown by Capell et al. (1993) displayed a median of 55 IU/ml, as compared to that of healthy controls of 10 IU/ml. With a wide-ranging pleiotropy endorsed by both a membrane-bound (IL-6R) and soluble (sIL-6R) receptor, and by the relative omnipresence of the trans-membrane protein gp130, IL-6 endorses a pro-inflammatory effect via its influence on numerous cell types and signalling-pathways. As a result, heightened levels of IL-6 aids in the promotion of osteitis, sequential joint damage, pain/discomfort and impaired function in RA patients. Pleiotropy of IL-6 Interleukin 6 exerts effects on numerous pathways contributing to the pathophysiology of RA. IL-6 as it is called today has been known by several names that exemplify its pleiotropy for example, hepatocyte-stimulating factor known to cause the induction of C-reactive protein (CRP); due to IL-6 association with synovial fibril aggregation has been known as Amyloid protein; a thrombopoietin; both B-cell differentiation and stimulating factor 2; plasmacytoma growth factor; and cytotoxic T-cell differentiation factor. It also causes the differentiation of Th17 cells; is a causative factor in adhesion molecule expression on the surface of endothelial cells, and is involved in the differentiation to mature from precursor osteoclasts cells (REF!!). IL-6 Recptor binding IL-6 implements its influence via a protein complex primarily comprised of a membrane bound IL-6R and a glycoprotein comprised of two intra-cytoplasmic transducer sub-units, gp130. When IL-6 binds to membrane bound IL-6R (mIL-6R) it causes homo-dimerisation of the gp130 sub-units, of which triggers intra-cytoplasmic signal transduction. Whilst expression of gp130 is relatively omnipresent upon the surface of the body’s cells (Akil, et al., 2008), IL-6R is most prominently located on hepatocytes, macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils and select lymphocytes. However, (sIL-6R) of which is systemic also binds IL-6, and just as mIL-6R, can also engage with gp130 for sIL-6-gp130 trans-signalling (REF!). Synoviocytes, for example do not express mIL-6R but do express gp130. Raised levels of IL-6 in the synovium is a characteristic biomarker of RA (Attar, et al., 2010), and Kim, et al. (1996) states enhanced IL-6/sIL-6R in synovial fluid increased the risk of joint destruction, as IL-6 stimulates endothelial cells to express adhesion cytokines and other molecules of which attract inflammatory cells to synovial membrane (Romano, et al., 1997) thus could contribute to exemplifying the significance of sIL-6R in RA pathophysiology. sIL-6R is formed by either an incomplete proteolytic enzymic dissection of mIL-6R or alternative splicing of mRNA (REF!!). With the aforementioned ubiquitous nature of gp130, mIL-6R and systemic sIL-6R, increasing evidence REFERENCES SEE NOTES!! shows that a non-membrane bound, systemic, soluble gp130 (sgp130) found in higher circulatory concentrations than that of sIL-6, also binds IL-6/sIL-6R, thus functioning as a redundency factor inhibiting the cytoplasmic signal-transducing potential of mgp130 REFERENCES SEE NOTES!!, (IL-6/IL-6 receptor system and its role†¦) thus serving as a natural inhibitor of IL-6 signalling (IL-6/IL-6 receptor system and its role†¦). Intracellular signalling gp130 dimerisation brings Janus Kinases (JAKS), a receptor-associated protein complex, into close proximity causing a trans-activation of the two molecule types. Auto-phosphorylation of JAKS occurs, of which causes intracellular signal transduction by recruiting signal-transducers and activators of transcriptions (STAT) that form either hetro or homo dimers and migrate to cell nucleus effecting target gene transcription of various physiological processes (REF). IL-6 can be detrimental to human physiology (REF!), thus expression of proteins known as the suppressors of cytokine signalling (SOCS) function as a negative-feedback system, and are activated by STAT’s. The regulation of the JAK-STAT signalling pathway by SOCS is more specifically down-regulated by SOCS 3 (REF!). SOCS 3 binds JAK’s causing negative-regulation thus functioning as an auto-regulatory mechanism, by inhibiting JAK activity. IL-6 and the Adaptive Immune System The trans-signalling of IL-6 is known to cause the induction of pre-B-cell-colony-stimulating factor (PBEF) in fibroblast cells of the synovium (Bryant, et al., 2006), and since PBEF upon its discovery was considered a B-cell differentiation cytokine(McNiece et al., 1994), it could be considered plausible that IL-6-induced PBEF and the IL-6 maturation of B-cells, collectively contribute to RA. It has been found the effect of IL-6 on plasmablasts indirectly induces the production of B-cell antibodies by assisting elements of CD4+ T-cells (of which act upon activated B-cells) due to elevated IL-21 production (Bond, et al., 2009), thus IL-6 may potentially be a co-adjuvant to humoural immunity enhancement (Bond, et al., 2009). Enhanced levels of the RA associated Rheumatoid Factor are located in the IgA, IgG and IgM isotypes (Ahmed, et al., 2010), and citruline antibodies located in serum and joints, can be linked to the plasmablast-induced antibody production of IL-6 (Ahmed, et al., 20 10). IL-6 enhances T-cell proliferation where they have been mitogen stimulated (Mihara, et al., 2002). IL-6 also impacts T-cell development (Mihara, et al., 2002). Along with transforming growth factor (TGF)- ÃŽ ², IL-6 contributes to Th 17 differentiation, an effector T cell with pro-inflammatory elements, and is further compounded by Th 17 production of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-17 (Bettelli, et al., 2007). Interestingly, without IL-6, TGF- ÃŽ ² induces Treg production, of which are Th 17 cell suppressors (Hirota, et al., 2008). CD4+ Th cells have been considered Th 1 and Th 2 based upon their cytokine-producing characteristics (Diehl and Rincon, 2002). Th 1 and Th 2 produce IFN-á µ § and IL-13 respectively, of which are both pro-inflammatory molecules, however whereas IL-6 bolsters IL-4 induced differentiation of Th 2, it causes the inhibition of IL-12 induced differentiation of Th 1 (Diehl and Rincon, 2002). Acosta-Rodriguez, et al. (2007) found that in vitro levels of IL-1ÃŽ ² – induced Th 17 polarisation of naà ¯ve human CD4+ T-cells were heightened by IL-6 involvement. More research however, is required to make clear the full extent of IL-6 role in human Th 17 cell development, in vivo. During inflammation, neutrophils of which are essential inflammatory mediators, systemically increase substantially, resulting in relative neutrophilia. Endothelial cells, macrophages and monocytes all emit IL-6. Neutrophils are directly affected by IL-6 due to the expression of IL-6R. Filer, et al. (2005) found that co-cultured endothelial cells and fibroblasts extracted from synovial fluid of RA patients caused an increase in IL-6 and neutrophil recruitment. Adhesion molecules, of which it has been shown in the work of Woodfin et al. (2010) to be required in the transmigration of neutrophils, are augmented by IL-6 such as vascular cell adhesion molecule – 1 (VCAM) and intracellular adhesion molecule – 1 (ICAM) of which produce chemokine production. Thus neutrophils being the most numerous and systemic of leucocytes have a strong initial synovial presence and is bolstered by the amplification of the inflammatory cascade, contributing to the inflammatory escalation during acute-phase response; and findings from animal and human studies revealed that the blockade of IL-6 caused a reduction in neutrophil levels at inflamed sites (Hashizume, et al., 2008), as well as a reduction in systemic neutrophil counts in RA patients (Deguchi, et al., 2003 and Broll, et al., 2006),thus indicating a prominent role for IL-6 in neutrophilia. IL-6: Acute to Chronic Farnarier, et al. (2003) suggests the transition from acute to chronic inflammation as emphasised by a shift of biomarker from neutrophil to monocyte, is influenced by IL-6. It was found that if stimulated for a number of hours by inflammatory cytokines, neutrophils switched from the production of IL-8 and transitioned to monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) (Yamashiro, et al., 1999). sIL-6R is released from neutrophils of which in turn causes the chemokine release of endothelial cells, thus Romano, et al. (1997) suggests the IL-6 – sIL6R complex contributes to the release of MCP-1 from endothelial cells. As earlier discussed, neutrophil-count was found to be directly associated with the blockade of IL-6R?!; and endothelial cells expressing the gp130 but not the IL-6R, thus reliant upon the IL-6 – sIL6RÃŽ ± complex for induction of MCP-1 release, i.e. the release of monocyte, not neutrophil specific chemo-attractants (Gres, et al., 2001), it would appear IL-6 tran-signalling plays an integral role in the transition from acute to chronic inflammation via neutrophil and endothelial cells. *CHART SHOWING CELLS THAT RELEASE IL-6!!* IL-6 induces a disintigrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs (ADAMTS) and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) proteinases of which are pivotal in the degradation of extracellular matrix. IL-6 more specifically, has been shown to induce ADAMTS-4 and MMP’s 1, 2 and 13 production in cells lining the synovium and chondrocytes (Hashizume and Mihara, 2009; Hashizume, et al., 2010; 2012). However, it has been suggested the IL-6 – sIL-6R complex has bearing on the extracellular matrix turnover, as it causes generation of tissue inhibitors of MMP’s (TIMP’s) in synovium fibroblasts and chondrocytes (Dayer, et al., 1998 and Hashizume, et al., 2012). The drug tocilizumab (TCZ), an IL-6 inhibitor reduces MMP-3 blood serum levels of RA patients (Garnero, et al., 2010), and has been show to restore biomarkers associated with cartilage turnover (Dayer, et al., 1998). Thus, in RA patients the reduction of IL-6 activity appears to be a mediatory factor in sustainment of healthy joint cartilage. Angiogenesis is a key process in the local inflammatory process. Neovascularisation of the synovium and other angiogenic processes such as hyperplasia of synovial cells and permeation by inflammatory cells are characteristic processes in pannus development and RA pathology (Ballara et al., 2001). In addition to notable constituents of the inflammatory process such as monocytes and T cells, both of which as stated previously have affiliations with IL-6 expression (CITATION OF A FEW), levels of a key angiogenic specific growth factor Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) has also been associated with systemic levels of IL-6, as demonstrated in the work of Hasizume, et al., 2009 and Hagihara, et al., 2003 revealing IL-6 induces VEGF production from synovial cells. VEGF induces proteins that contribute to the breakdown of endothelial basement membrane, including MMP’s, of which increases the permeability of blood vessels, thus allowing enhanced infiltration of inflammatory constituents (Delisle, et al., 2010). VEGF levels accordingly, have been shown to coincide with the articular severity of RA (Hagihana, et al., 2003), and has shown a reduction in response to TCZ (Hagihana, et al., 2003), of which correlates with findings of a semi-quantitative assessment by Akoi, et al. (2011) using ultrasonography that found TCZ responsible for a marked reduction in RA neovascularisation. Bone Remodelling Bone remodelling is a highly regulated process in which mature bone tissue is removed by osteoclasts and formation by osteoblasts. The pathogenesis of RA favours bone loss (resorption) via the excessive production of osteoclasts. Anecdotal evidence by Kazuto et al. (1996) revealed synovial fluid highly +ve for IL-6 –sIL6R complex from RA patients, stimulated increased formation of osteoclasts in mouse co-culture of osteoblast and bone marrow cells. This study coincides with research by Balena, et al. (1994) of which indicated that mice deficient in IL-6 displayed no significant changes in gross or trabecular bone structure. In human studies, biopsies of RA patients revealed that peri-articular bone loss was found to correlate with local excessive presence of IL-6 (Sugiyama, 2001), and work by Garnero et al. (2009) showed the administration of TCZ to RA patients in a multi-centre double-blind placebo-controlled study yielded an increase in bone-formation markers, with a decrease in bone-resorption markers. Collectively, research suggests IL-6 has a negative effect on bone mass. Acute-phase response Acute-phase response is an innate immune reaction in which IL-6 is notably involved via the stimulation of hepatocytes, and is a key inducer of the acute-phase protein CRP. CRP is considered a dependable biomarker of inflammation and RA activity as serum half-life remains constant due to its inflammatory-induced, hepatic-stimulated production being the exclusive systemic determinant and due to its noted increase in RA serum levels (Hirshfield and Pepys, 2003). Anaemia Approximately 1-in-4 RA patients will suffer symptoms of anaemia within the first year (Figenschau, Nikolaisen and Nossent, 2008). The hormone hepcidin, produced in the liver and integral in stemming the metabolism of iron, has been shown in vitro to increase in presence due to IL-6 stimulation of hepatoma cells (Ganz, 2003). This study correlates with Gabayan et al. (2004) in which IL-6 induced patients experienced a 7.5 fold increase in hepcidin production. Anaemia in RA patients, as a result of a hepcidin-IL-6 axis, has limited but supported credence. Osteoporosis has also shown a correlation with IL-6. As mentioned earlier, healthy bone metabolism requires adequate regulation of osteoclasts and osteoblasts, in which excessive IL-6 expression and the Th17 derived IL-17 (Gillespie, et al., 1999) both contribute to excessive osteoclast formation (Campbell et al., 2005). This has also been found to be the case in transgenic mice (De et al., 2006; and Choy and Dayer, 2009) in which bone formation was reduced, and negative ossification was reported. As shown, there are comparable cross-over aspects of IL-6 pathology between RA and osteoporosis. Treatment As highlighted throughout this review, IL-6 plays a pleiotropic pathophysiological role in RA, thus would make an ideal therapeutic target. The most promising and note-worthy of treatments at present, TCZ interrupts IL-6 induced trans-signalling. Numerous studies have shown promising results including a phase III clinical trial in 2005 using the ACR (American College of Rheumatology)* RA activity measure, which had improvement measures of 89, 70 and 47% at ACR’s of 20, 50 and 70 respectively at 52 weeks, in patients treated with TCZ. This multicentre, double-blind placebo-controlled trial by Hashimoto et al. (2004) showed bone resorption and joint destruction could potentially be completely prevented (Kishimoto, 2010), as exemplified when a culture of patient synovial and peripheral mononuclear cells, extracted from the same patients showed that osteoclast generation was completely prevented (Hashimoto et al., 2004; Kishimoto, 2010). At 6 weeks within this study, it was also found that IgG, CRP and serum amyloid A levels all normalised. It has also been suggested that TCZ aids in Th17 differentiation, hence IL-17 production, thus aids in the improvement of RA symptoms (Kimura and Kishimoto, 2010). Other notable studies such as the SAMURAI (Study of Active controlled Monotherapy Used for RA, an IL-6 Inhibitor) and LITHE (TociLIzumab safety and THE prevention of structural joint damage trial) served to enhance conscensus. This humanised, monoclonal antibody has now been approved in many countries^^. 286 With a wide-ranging pleitropy, IL-6 has the most profuse SF and systemic cytokine presence in RA pathophysiology, and coincides with cartilage erosion and disease activity. It has a role in elements of B-cell differentiation and increasing evidence suggests a definite yet ambiguous role in Th17 differentiation. IL-6 has several key positions in immune and inflammatory processes (recruitment, permeation and adhesion of inflammatory elements), and bone and joint degradation, of which over-expression causes adversity, such as release of hepcidin and CRP from the liver contributing to anaemia and inflammation, osteoporosis and pannus development. It plays a key role in the cross-over from acute-to-chronic disease. 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Doing Business in Europe :: Essays Papers

Doing Business in Europe 1. Common Market The first chapter deals mostly with the definition and pecularities of the so-called Common Market, formed from countries of European Union. The Common Market encloses European Union of Coal and Steel, European Economic Union and European Nuclear Energy Union. Since 1967 the European Union has the following non-national and intergovernmental bodies: Cabinet of Ministers, Commission of European Unions, European Parliament and Council of European Unions. Before the 1970, the countries of European Union were supporting the budget of European Union at the cost of their national budgets. Since April 1970, the Common Market holds its own resources independently from budgets of supporting countries. This fact makes the administrative bodies of European Union independent. 2. Tax System Common to Europe and all the world is the tax system which includes all or most of the following taxes: Income tax, Corporation tax, Trade tax, Turnover tax, Property tax, Heritage tax, Purchase of Land tax. 3. International Concerns, Transnational Corporations and their policies These include the definite politics in the field of profitability of foreign branches. The policy is aimed to gain high profits in countries with comparatively low taxes, and in the countries with high taxes the accumulated profit must be lower. The common goal of transnational corporations is, of course, to preserve the liquidity and profitability of foreign branches. Thus such branches are required to send certain information to the main office each month or each quarter. 4. World Currency System European Market is a sum of currency operations which are done at the free world market outside of native country. The international currency terminology distinguishes such currency markets as: currency markets, where the trade of foreign currencies is done within the home country, and the euromarket, where the trade of foreign currencies is done outside of the home country. 5. How to Sell in Western Market Common conditions for success are like a set of rules. The first rule states: it is comparatively easy to produce something, but selling it is a challenging task. The main principle of survival for manufacturer is to produce goods that can be sold, not to sell what the company produces. The common conditions for survival on the market include high quality of the product, fast and cheap support, satisfactory warranty period, and good marketing. Here the cultural differences must be considered, together with the information about prior experience is selling the particular product inside and outside of the home country, mentality differences, pace of progress, culture values, religion.

Crime Statistics Comparison

Crime statistics endeavour to provide statistical measures of crime in societies. They provide a point of analysis and comparison, allow countries to form long-term patterns and trends and can help to develop and reform criminal justice policies as well as being more meaningful than raw numbers. Using the countries of Bahrain and the United States as a comparison point for the following issues which surround crime statistics such as biases, agendas and general influences like education and religion; this essay will be focused around analysing the statistical factors and wider influences which can allow a country to have low or high crime rates. Crime Definitions Definitions of what exactly constitutes being a crime differ not only across countries but even across states. This can be an issue with statistics as in order to measure and compare crime consistently crimes need to be classified and placed into groups of similar offences. While murder is a crime recognized and agreed upon by most nations, what makes up a homicide may be more challenging and then even simply just a ‘crime against the person’ can vary widely. This often means that what makes up a crime for many offences can vary throughout jurisdictions. This is a problem when categorizing offences for international statistical comparison. An example of this is the way that laws differ state to state within the United States, while ‘offences known to police’ is a statistic seen as quite a high representative figure of the offences, a lot of researches see that no official measure can ever come close to the actual amount of criminality that exists in any form in society (Archer, 1984) Definitional problems are concerned with whether or not crimes have equivalent meanings between nations, which in most cases a lot of crimes seem not to have. Countries most often vary in behaviours which can sometimes be seen as coming within the space of the law. So for any kind of comparison of crime rates to work at all, it is crucial that the definitions of crimes and the categories they are placed in are similar. The next issue with definitions is that even the different organizations that compile crime statistics differ within their own definitions. Interpol for example defines murder as: Any act performed with the purpose of taking human life, excluding abortion but including infanticide (and including attempts). Kalish, 1988) While the World Health Organization (WHO) does not distinguish between intentional or unintentional homicides but does not include attempts under this organization attempts fall under a separate legal distinction(Kalish, 1988). And again, the United Nations have a different definition for homicide: Death purposely inflicted by another person, including infanticide. (Kalish, 1988) Due to major issues with the above topics across all countries, due to definitional and categorical differences, crime statistics can differ significantly. In Bahrain, crimes against the individual are ranked in relation to the seriousness of the offence, murder, attempted murder, murder by error, assault, threatening and others. In the United States, offences are not classed separately, but into broad categories which are homicides, robberies and assaults. Bahrain does not report rape as a single category and in response, no reports of rape have been sent to their criminal investigation unit (Ministry of Information, 1985). Reporting Issues The quality of the way crime is reported is likely to be influenced by a wide range of practices and techniques in different jurisdictions. For example in Bahrain, individual police departments participation in reporting crime rates is compulsory, but neither the numbers of convictions or the final outcome of cases are reported, whereas, local police departments in the United States are under no obligation to report back crime rates from their areas as participation is voluntary (Newman, 1993). Honesty or dishonesty of police who are involved in the collection and compilation process of statistics (Adler, 1983) and the manipulation of the data compiled for political reasons – which will be discussed later – are some other examples of things than can influence the quality of the crime that is reported. In the United States for example, every case involving multiple offences by the same person that are compiled by police, the statistic noted down is only in relation to the most serious offence that has occurred (Reichel, 1994). Underreporting is an influence on the reporting of crime as it affects basically every area and any data that is compiled by police. In many occasions and for many different reasons people do not report offenses they are victims of or that they witness. There is a ‘dark-figure’ of crime in both Bahrain and the United States, there have been no victimisation studies conducted in Bahrain to date, but on the opposite side, the victimisation surveys that have been conducted in the United States show higher crime rates than the Uniform Crime Reporting System shows (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1981-1987). Another reason there are issues with extremely low or quite high crime rates is the issue of political influences. Police may exaggerate statistics in their areas to draw funding to their area for upgrades and to gain more police numbers, or even down the crime statistics to reflect success of their force, to show the people of the country and the world that they are doing their job correctly and well. The government can also do the above, by altering the statistics, they can create a sense of fear in there people to gain votes through public advertising that they will combat the high rates of crime in certain areas, or downgrade the rates to adhere to international requirements, to attempt to get the country placed on the ‘best of’ lists within international media as a way to gain tourism by showing they are a safe place to visit. Wider Influences: Bahrain is a country which operates on all levels in relation to the teachings of the Qur’an. This makes up the fabric of life for the Bahraini people, the influence of the Islamic religion can be seen in the economic, political and social pathways of life within the culture of the country. In Bahrain, religion is the most important structure. The Islamic religion opposes wrongdoing in all its forms and that any wrongdoing can lead to the downfall of society. The teachings of the Prophet attempt to get rid of all forms of crime before it happens by influencing the individuals who follow the religion. Acts against the law therefore is not only a crime against society in the eyes of Bahraini people it is also a violation of the principles of God. In Bahrain there are even ‘moral police officers’ who regulate the dress and public behaviour of citizens (Helal, 1991). As the Qur’an provides the basis for society, it also provides the base for which laws are made. All laws however have major influence from the Western cultures, apart from marriage, divorce and succession which all fall under the Shari’ah. Souryal, 1988)Therefore religion is a major influence in relation to everything, right down to helping explain the low crime rate in Bahrain. Citizens are able to speak directly to the ruler of Bahrain for a few days each month this allows the people to feel that they are in touch with their government as they are able to voice their concerns directly (Helal, 1991). Therefore crimes against the state are less likely to be committed as people feel as if they play a greater role than just an individual in a wider community. Souryal (1988) has noted in his studies that since firearms, drugs and alcohol are all banned, the opportunity for violence is reduced. Ontop of this, the way the law is applied to Muslim offenders acts as a deterrent to the Bahraini citizens. The penalty for committing a crime is harsher if the offender is Muslim and has committed an offence against a Muslim, the Islamic penal code is also enforced against non-Muslims in the country. Some punishments that can be given out include amputation, stoning, flogging and death which can be executed in public (Moore, 1987). The influence of education within Bahrain is a major factor that can be related back to the low crime rate of the country. Islam religion is tied tightly into the education at all levels in Bahrain, and education is compulsory for all children living in the country also (Helal, 1991). The United States however has a separation between church and state, which is not the case in Bahrain. Within the United States, there is a separation of powers, it is a multicultural society which also makes it multi-faith, to base all laws on just the one religion within the United States would most likely cause more crime rather than decrease the rate. Within the United States alcohol and firearms are legal once of a certain age, therefore the high crime rate within the country can be related back to the availability to things that aid criminal acts and violence. Education within the United States changes in relation to the age of compulsory education, it ranges from between 14 to 18 (State Compulsory Attendance Laws, 2007). Religion is not taught within all schools due to the adversity of religions within each state and the country as a whole. There are schools which focus on specific religions, these however are private schools and advertise that they do these teachings (Religion in Schools, 2004). The major difference between the two countries, other than the rate of crime, Bahrain’s crime rate being quite low compared to the United States, is the issue of religion within not just the country, but as the basis for all the laws and the way the entire community of Bahrain lives their life. In conclusion, there are so many reasons by which crime statistics can be altered due to not only issues with reporting and recording, but definitional issues and wider societal influences. It is not until recently that any one organization has attempted to compile and compare cross-national crime statistics, for this to be done however, organizations need to find a way to combat the above issues outlined. The United Nations have pushed for a standard level of classification of offences and the collection of statistics across continents which would set out minimum standards for the collection, analysis and presentation of the statistics. (Vetere, 1977). This is just one way we can start to remove bias and definitional errors. The true rate of crime is impossible to compare or even start to determine. The amounts of crime reported demonstrate that there is a major difference between the two countries in terms of crime rates. The Islamic religion within Bahrain lays the foundations for life and can be seen woven into critical social areas within the community, all in which can create the basis for crime to become a realty; within Bahrain however, due to the tight influence religion has on one’s conscience, it has the opposite impact (Helal, 1991). The United States has the separation of church and state, therefore fewer values are shared throughout the country, which allows for breaks within society and these can be seen as the basis for crime to be committed, therefore raising the crime rate rather than lowering it. It would be simply ridiculous to implement the way Bahraini society is run into the United States(Helal, 1991). But the influence that the combination of church and state within a country like Bahrain has on the Bahraini people is simply just one way in which can be shown to keep crime rates low.References http://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/religion-in-schools http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0112617.html

Alberts Aimless Absurdity - 898 Words

In Albert Camus’ novella, The Stranger, he exposes his beliefs on absurdism through the narration of Meursault. Camus’ definition of absurdism is a philosophy based on the belief that the universe is illogical and meaningless. Camus, founder of absurdism and French Nobel Prize winning author, sends the reader his underlying theme that life is meaningless and has no ulti-mate significance. This underlying theme of life’s absurdity is extremely personal to Camus through his own individual experiences of his life. Camus establishes his process of absurdism directly in the first line. Meursault narrates, â€Å"[m]other died today. Or, maybe, yesterday; I can’t be sure† (Camus 4). This is the first indica-tion Meursault does not pay much consideration to the life of his own. In normal cases, children who have lost their mother, or any parent, should know details of such a horrifying event in one’s life. In Simon du Plock’s â€Å"Albert Cam us – Existentialist or Abusurdist?†, he points out, â€Å"[i]n that murder scene [where Meursault kills the Arab] is contained the key to unlocking Camus’ concept of the absurd†¦[l]ife, as Camus describes it†¦is pointless, meaningless, and must end in death† (du Plock 16). For example, the murder scene is the first concrete action Meursault and Camus take to show that human life is meaningless past death. Leading up to Meursault’s slaying of the Arab, it is arguable that he was looking for something to happen. Meursault went to the beach with a gun when it